FORENSIC EVIDENCE AND CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION:A CASE STUDY OF NIGERIA POLICE CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION DEPARTMENT

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Background to the study

In line with global trends and the peculiarity of Nigeria's security needs, security experts and other stakeholders have been making persistent calls on the Federal Government to do more 'intentional' investments in crime investigation. The country is in dire need of infrastructure to support evidence-led policing, as opposed to confession-led techniques in crime convictions. Yet, as at the last count, the nation of over 170 million people (with an arguably high crime rate) has no functional forensic lab, even after over two decades of informed and animated debate. It would appear that, going by the persistent demands of the Nigeria Police Force (NPF) and testimonies of a handful of security experts the Federal Government is yet to design a clear-cut strategy on 'acquiring' 'functional' laboratories, much less train forensic experts.

Regarding lack of capacity for scientific crime investigation, expert opinions converged on specific areas of need, chief of which are lack of both soft and hard ware’s and reliable database, poor investigative protocols and crime scene processing, as well as absence of qualified medical examiners within the police force. Worse still, the prevailing insurgency in the Northeast, the kidnappings in the South and the embarrassingly long list of unresolved crimes continue to make a more serious case for urgent investment in infrastructure and personnel for scientific tests and techniques for detecting crimes.

While the Managing Director and Chief Executive of Hayes Meridian Group (HMG), a Radio Communication and Security Solutions Provider, Mr. Oyebanji  Oyewumi, argues that today's issues in crime investigation derive from historic lack of adequate funding for security agencies, including the Nigeria Police Force [marcel mbamaluThe Guardian, November 2, 2014]. Mr. Ona Ekhomu, the chairman of the Lagos-based Transworld Security, says lack of modern crime labs and databases contribute more to the problem.

Against this backdrop, Mr. Patrick Agbambu, chief executive of the Security Watch Africa, thinks the major challenge of crime investigation in Nigeria is the political will to conclusively prosecute offenders. Insisting that investigators in the Nigeria Police currently use "crude means, methods and techniques in handling cases, Agbambu says 'the Nigeria Police has capable personnel in their investigations department, but lack modern investigative tools and infrastructure."    (http://.allafrica.com/stories/201411031197.html par4: Nov2, 2014)

According to Aliyu Umar Babangida, a retired military officer (now a security consultant), forensics and its crucial need for modern-day policing and crime scene investigations are yet to find expression in Nigeria. The Nigeria Police Headquarters confirm that the force is not only underfunded, but also poorly trained. (http://.allafrica.com/stories/201411031197.html par7)

According to the Nigeria Police Force Website, the police forces do not have a fully equipped and functional forensic laboratory right now. The two crime labs at Alagbon (Lagos) and Kaduna are really not functional, and police personnel are not adequately trained on the rudiments of crime investigation.

However, one of the recommendations of the police reform is for six forensic laboratories within the six geopolitical zones of the country, but that has not been granted yet. No doubt, the amalgam of opinions, including that of the Police, simply re-echoes security experts' calls, in the last two decades, for total overhaul of existing infrastructure, with a view to equipping the NPF. Forensics is the use of scientific means in sieving out information that will lead to crime resolution and also entails getting vital evidence; meaning that, long after the criminal would have left the scene, investigators could go in for the trail left behind. With good infrastructure and forensic technology, therefore, investigators could rely on fingerprints found on the scene. The CCTV (if any is installed) also forms an integral part of forensic investigation.

            Usually, with all the information pieced together, the profiling by investigators narrows down (depending on the risk level) to determine if the subject will be invited for questioning. Nigeria is already doing this aspect of investigation, but embarrassingly lags behind when it comes to use of forensic labs, fingerprinting, DNA and CCTVs on the streets to crack cases.

Most of the lead evidence used by the police in courts, like in autopsy for murder cases, are the testimonies of pathologists. But such evidence could be easily punctured by further forensic analyses, as the pathologist can only establish the cause of death without a foolproof establishment of circumstances surrounding what caused the death. This is where forensics - fingerprints from scene of crime and subsequent analysis as well as, perhaps, CCTVs and their forensic auditing will do the magic.

1.2 Statement of Problem

Series of problem are affecting criminal investigation ranging from inadequate funding of the criminal investigation department, lack of knowhow of the personnel to the absence of a functioning forensic laboratory. Also, the science of forensics is yet to take root in Nigeria; yet crime has not only gone hi-tech all over the world, but sophisticated and well.  If the Nigerian police force is to break grounds and push its boundaries of investigation, it must develop expertise in forensics. There seem to be no concerted effort by government to develop this line of technique in crime investigation, despite the obvious good it will do to accused persons, and those innocently and wrongfully convicted. There are many unsolved crimes, how many innocents suspects killed needlessly in the quest to make them confess, how many rape cases unsolved without apprehending the suspects? (which would be easier to catch with forensics through the sperm) How many vehicles are arguably the best sources of Forensic Evidence that can lead to the location of kidnapping and armed robbery hideouts? How much have many insurance companies lost due to false claims by the clients, because there is a limit to how much investigation (without forensics can go)? How sure are we that those supposed suicides are really accidents? What level of awareness do out lawyers in Nigeria, have about the importance of forensics and actually apply them? Many cases won or lost could have a different outcome had forensics been involved?

 Another major problem Nigeria faces is the problem of over-congestion of prisons, that is, the amount of people in the prison is far more than the amount it was made for. Nigeria has 228 prisons housing 47,815inmates, 145 prisons for convicts while 83 serve as satellite prison camps, there are also 3 institutions for juvenile delinquents. Most cells are old, tiny and also overcrowded. The Ikoyi Prisons in Lagos State which has capacity for 800 inmates currently has over1500 people awaiting trial. The Kuje prison in Abuja has more than 600 inmates, 85 convicts and585awaiting trial.

Amnesty International, Its 2008 report, declared that Nigerian prisons are filled with people whose human rights are systemically violated. It stated that 65 percent of the inmates are awaiting trail, and overcrowding has many negative effects on the individual on both physical and mental health; this and many more are problems that forensics will help reduce in Nigeria.

Since the 2010 visit from the US by police detective Charles Massucci and Anthropology Professor Erin Kimmerle, it is uncertain how far and how seriously the Nigerian authorities have viewed their work to teach forensic science; and make it part of police training and investigation technique. It is suggested here that given the rate of extra-judicial killings and unresolved high profile crimes – like murder and kidnapping – in Nigeria, it is imperative that, the Nigerian Police College review its curriculum, with a view to making the study of forensic science mandatory for all police officer going through training.

As Prof. Kimmerle observed then and the situation has since deteriorated that there exist in Nigeria extra-judicial killings of suspects, innocent civilians, multinational oil workers and politicians, by the police, the military forces, vigilante groups and armed militants in various parts of Nigeria. All of judicial reform is based on forensic sciences and of what good is law if you cannot enforce it?

That is why this study is necessary to contribute to the knowledge available to help the situation in Nigeria with the problem of bringing forensic science to the foreground in criminal investigation.

1.3 Research Questions

1. What are the techniques used in crime investigation as it relates to forensic evidence?

2. What is the catalogue of forensic evidence and what is its usefulness in solving crime cases?

3. What are the ways forensic science can contribute to the effective and efficient detection of crime and convictions of criminals?

4. What is the importance of forensics in crime detection and investigation?

1.4 Objectives of the study

To obtain the truth through an analysis of criminal investigation requires the field called Forensic Science. Basically, the objectives of this study are as follows

1. Study the techniques of crime Investigations  as it relates to forensic science
2. . To understand the catalogue of forensic evidence and its usefulness in solving crime cases.
3. To identify ways forensic science contributes to the effective and efficient detection of crime and convictions of criminals.
4. Discover the importance of forensics in crime detection and investigation

1.5 Significance of the study.

This research will greatly help the law enforcement in formulation of laws that could further help in curbing the menace of serial criminal acts, also it will be of utmost important to the criminal investigation department by allowing them to know the effectiveness of Forensic Science in the process of criminal investigation and it techniques. More so, the research will be of immense benefit to the government by offering a variety of suggestions to the government as to the need for government to provide proper training to criminal investigators in order for the investigators to carry out their job diligently both on the field and in the laboratory. Likewise, this research work will be of significance importance to any student or researcher that might have interest in Forensics and criminal investigation, it will greatly contribute to their body of knowledge. It will serve as existing source for researchers in their quest for knowledge. In conclusion, this research work will aid in advancing the course of knowledge as to how forensic evidence is been gotten and used in criminal  investigation  and how it is being carried out to apprehend criminals.

 1.6 Limitation of the Study

This study like any other study will definitely have some problems, challenges, or limitations inherent. The challenges faced in conducting this study is basically due to the fact that it is not widely researched or evident in Nigeria, especially Kwara State, this means that not many people have done work or written books on it in Nigeria. Also, there is a major limitation to this study. It is based on a limited time frame and funding. The scope of the study is restricted to only Kwara State which is not part of the top 3 developed states in Nigeria.

1.7 Definition of basic Terms

Forensics Science:

This is defined as anything relating to the use if science or technology in the investigation and establishment of facts or evidence in a court of law. Its source is from the Latin word ‘forum’. The Forum was a public gathering place in the Roman times, where judicial business and activities were conducted. Simply put, it’s the application of science to law.

Forensic science is the application of science to law. Any science can be applied into a legal situation, but some of the commonest forensic sciences include forensic biology, forensic chemistry, and forensic toxicology. The word forensic in today’s world simply means the application of something to a legal situation (Anderson, 2007).

Forensic Evidence:

According to Collins dictionary, forensic evidence is evidence obtained by the use of science. Evidence is a sign or proof of the existence of something, or piece of information that proves or suggests the guilt of someone accused of a crime. Therefore Forensic evidence is any piece of scientific information used in the criminal justice system .E.g. sperm for a rape case, ballistics (bullets) for a robbery case etc

Criminal Investigation:

According to Wikipedia, criminal investigation is an applied science that involves the study of facts, used to identify, locate and prove the guilt of an accused person. However, it is expected to be conducted by qualified bodies of the state.Criminal investigation involves the inquiry into and a detailed examination into something termed as illegal under the laws of a particular State by qualified bodies.

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The effectiveness of plyometric training programme on some selected athletic events among the students of Federal Government College

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background to the Study

             Sports has continued to have great impact in the area of health,  economy as well as serving as an avenue for integration and unity locally and internationally. It is a channel of curbing some problems associated with social vices in the society. Sport has become a veritable avenue for running multi-million dollar industries, coupled with promotion of fame and prestige. Sport enlightens/educates people, socializes people, develops and helps maintain the physiological functioning of man’s body creates wealth and leads to promotion of fame.  The above statement was asserted in the words of Sir Juan Antonio Samaranch (former President of the International Olympic Committee) during his opening speech at the 23^rd Olympic Games of Atlanta Georgia in 1996, when he said “sport is life, sport is health, sport is education, sport is wealth, and sport is everything in life”.

            Today, competition in sports is becoming tougher at all levels, to the extent that winning in sports has become difficult not only for committed part-time sport men and women but also professional athletes.  No wonder, that stake holders such as: coaches, trainers, team managers, institutions, state governments and even countries are all out in search of what will give their athletes or teams enviable wins.  Some even go to the extent of sending their coach packing. An example is Chelsea Football Club that sacked Coach Villa Boas during the 2010/2011English Premier League in England just because of lack of performance of the team.  Some stakeholders spend millions of dollars on athletes or players for instance a Russian Football Club spent one hundred million dollars on two players in a bid to win during any championship at all costs.

As a matter of fact, there can never be a win without one important variable which is ‘Performance’ which is not also possible without training.  Stake holders such as: coaches, trainers, managers, institutions, and even countries have been employing different training methods or programs to groom their athletes in order to bring out the best in them with a view to either improving or maintaining their performance.  Some training programmes that are employed by these stake holders include: circuit training, interval training, repetition training, weight training and plyometric training among others. The above statement was asserted by both Robinson and Owens (2004) and Yab and Brown (2000) who opined that “Plyometric activities have been used to build up athletes in sports such as  football, tennis, soccer and other sporting event that agility may be useful for their athletes. Even athletes are not also left out in the use of this Plyometric training Programme to build up themselves, as it is confirmed by both Yab and Brown (2000) and Chu (1998) who state that, “Plyometric are training techniques used by athletes in all sports to increase strength and explosiveness”.

            Plyometric according to Suthakar (2008), is any exercise that enables the muscle to reach maximum force in the shortest possible time. Baechle and Earle, (2000) with Craig (2004) describe plyometric as, “exercise training designed to produce fast powerful movement and improve the function of the nervous system generally for the purpose of improving performance in sport”. Jeremy (2009) explained, Plyometric as a training method that exploits the muscles natural circle of lengthening and shortening, to increase tension as the muscle is being stretched before the muscle can contract to elicit movement. The American Council on Exercise (2001), defined plyometric exercise as, specialized high intensity training technique used to develop athletic power (strength and speed). Therefore from the above definitions, plyometric may be viewed as, training method which involve jumping and squatting with burst of small, sudden movement to toughen tissues, stimulate and train nerve cells in order to make muscle produce movement in a specific way. Such training according to Ken, (2008), can condition the tissues and make the nerve cells to create a specific pattern of muscle contraction for that muscle to generate as strong a contraction as possible in a shortest period of time. According to Brainmac (2012), plyometric is used to describe the method of training that seeks to enhance the explosive reaction of the individual through powerful muscular contraction because of rapid eccentric contraction. Therefore, plyometric can be coined as, those exercises or training programmes that develop the neural pathways for some specific muscle movement through rapid stretching of the muscle immediately followed by a shortening action of the same muscle and connective tissues.

        Athletic is a physical activity that demands strength and speed. Athletic according to Wilson (2009) is “an exclusive collection of sporting events that involve competitive running, jumping, throwing, and walking”.

Plyometric movement can be found basically in all sporting activities.  Take for instance  in racket games like tennis, the explosive lateral movement required to run down one’s opponents sharply angled fore hand topspin and a very quick fast movement required to cover one’s next shot into the opponent’s court; or the fast drive and stretching of the legs with powerful swinging of the arms or hands to assist in propelling the body forward for good speed in track and field events as an explosive power, a combination of speed and strength required by a short putter in executing a very good putting in shot put.  The above statements is also confirmed by Tippett and Voight (2008), when they argued that all movement patterns in both athletics and activities of daily living (ADL) involve repeated stretch shortening cycles” which is the basic fundamental base for plyometric as it was observed by Jeremy (2009) in his definition of plyometric as “ the training method that exploits the muscle’s natural cycle of lengthening and shortening to increase tension as the muscle is being stretched before it can contract to elicit movement”.

         Plyometric training programme has been employed by athletes, to bring out better performance in them as it is confirmed by Chu (1998), when he that, “Plyometric are training techniques used by athletes in all sports to increase strength and explosiveness”. The 1972 Olympic 100 meters Gold Medal Winner, Valeric Borzor, who credited much of his success to plyometric training, also presents an argument in favour of the above assertion. Plyometric training is used by coaches to build up athletes or players for better performance.  The above statement is corroborated by Robinson & Owens, (2004);  Yap & Brown, (2000), who opine that Plyometric activities have been used to build up athletes in sports such as:  football, tennis, soccer and other sporting events that agility may be useful for their athletes.

Statement of the Problem

             In the resent times, many sport coaches have been fired, An example is, Villa Bosa who was sacked in 2011/2012 European Premier League season by Chelsea Football Club, Before Villa’s turn, the club had sent about eight coaches packing within eight years; athletes that had retired called back to come and support their clubs. For example, Paul Scholes after retirement in 2010/2011 was invited back by Manchester football club during the 2011/2012 European Premier League season to fortify Manchester Football Club. Some club managers spend millions of dollars on athletes; a Russian Football Club went as far as spending one hundred million dollars on just two athletes. All the above developments are in the name of ‘Performance’ which is capable of giving an enviable/victory. To achieve this winning through performance, stakeholders have been employing different training method or programme to groom their athletes in order to either improve or maintain the performance in their athletes.  Among training programmes that are employed by stake holders include: circuit-training, interval training, repetition training, weight training and plyometric training among others.   

Many researchers have carried out studies on ‘plyometric’, such as Krishnaswamy et al, (2008), who delved into the ‘Effects of plyometric Training  on Arm and Leg strength in Tennis and Field Hockey Players’ and Jeffery et al, (1999), who examined, ‘Muscle power and fiber characteristics following 8-weeks of plyometric training’, among others. But there is no documented study that examined the effect of plyometric training programme on tracks and field (Athletics) events in Federal Government College, Ikirun, Osun State . So this study will examine the effect of an eight-week plyometric training programme on performance in athletic events among the students of Federal Government College, Ikirun, Osun State.

Research Questions

1.  Will plyometric exercises have effect on the running speed of athletes of Federal Government College, Ikirun, Osun State?

2. Will plyometric exercise have effect on the vertical jumping ability of athletes of Federal Government College, Ikirun, Osun State?

3. Can there be any effect of plyometric exercise on the lateral jump ability of athletes of Federal Government College, Ikirun, Osun State?

4. Can there be any effect of plyometric exercise on shot putting ability of athletes of federal Government College, Ikirun, Osun State?

Research Hypotheses

Ho1. Plyometric exercise has no significant effect on running speed of athletes of Federal Government College, Ikirun, Osun State.

Ho2. Plyometric exercise has no significant effect on vertical jump ability of athletes of Federal Government College, Ikirun, Osun State.

Ho3. Plyometric exercise has no significant effect on lateral jump ability of athletes of Federal Government College, Ikirun, Osun State.

Ho4. Plyometric exercise has no significant effect on shot putting ability of athletes of Federal Government College, Ikirun, Osun State.

Objective of the Study

        The purpose of this research study is to show the effect of an 8-week plyometric training programme on performance in athletic events so as to compare the effectiveness of plyometric training programme on some selected athletic events among the students of Federal Government College, Ikirun, Osun State.

Significance of the Study

            The finding of this study will be of great assistance to many athletic coaches and trainers in selecting and planning training programme for the development and maintenance of their athletes’ performance. Adequate knowledge of this research finding on the effect of plyometric training programme will give the athletic coaches and trainers insight to discover the athletic events in which plyometric exercise is most effective.

            Moreover, it will be an eye opener for most of the stake holders in the field of athletic training programme on planning and execution of their training programmes. It will also pave the way for more research works.

Delimitation of the Study

The study focused on all the students of senior secondary school in Federal Government College, Ikirun, Osun State. Primarily, the study focused on those students that have been taking part in the selected athletic events, most especially those who represented their houses during the school’s 2013/2014 annual athletic inter-house competition in the selected athletic events (female and male inclusive).

        The data collected in the process of this research study were statistically treated with descriptive statistic; range, mean, and standard deviation for analyzing the demographic and some variables’ data. Inferential statistics of Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was used to determine whether there is any significant influence of the training programme on variables in the hypotheses postulated at 0.05 alpha level, while percentage was used as a post-hoc test to indicate where the effectiveness of the training progrmme lies among the selected athletic events. The preparatory and the experiment time is not more than ten weeks (two months and two weeks).

Operational Definition of Terms

Amortization Phase: This is the brief transition period from stretching phase to contracting phase of a muscle during the act of carrying out any physical activity or movement. 

Pre-stretch phase: This is a brisk stretching period of the muscle to be quickly followed by contraction of that same muscle when carrying out any physical activity or movement. 

Road Work: Jugging through a certain route for some minutes to warm-up the body so as to prepare the body for the main Physical activities to be done.

Stretch Shortening Circle: The underlying mechanism of plyometric training. It comprises the three phases involved in the execution of plyometric exercise, the pre-stretch or eccentric muscle action, the amortization phase and the actual muscle contraction phase.

Stretch Reflex: An involuntary, protective response that occurs to prevent overstretching and injury when a quick stretch is detected in the muscles.

Series Elastic: That component of a muscle that makes it look like a stretched spring which want to return to its natural length. It is the resultant effect of a stretch that is immediately followed by a concentric muscle action in which the stored energy in the muscle is being released.

Athlete: An individual student participating in any sporting activity in Federal Government College, Ikirun, Osun State.

Athletics:-  An exclusive collection of sporting events that involve competitive running, jumping, throwing , and walking (Wilsons, 2009). Athletic is a kind of sporting activity in which individual athlete compete among other athletes to decide a single victor.

Performance: “The accomplishment of a given task measured against preset known standard of accuracy, completeness, cost and speed” (Bronwyn, 2010). It is an act of executing a task or carrying out an activity in relation to an expected or set standard.

Concentric contraction:  A type of muscle contraction because of the tension created between its origin and insertion resulting ina great decrease in the angle of the working joint. According to Jessica (2010), “concentric contraction occurs when muscular force is greater than the force of resistance, and the muscle shortens.

Eccentric contraction: It is a type of muscular force exertion that causes an overall lengthening of the muscle, and increase in the angle of the working joint. Jessica (2010) explained that, eccentric contraction occurs when the force of resistance exceeds the force exerted by the muscle.

Training: These are physical and mental activities undertaken to prepare any athlete for major competition.

Interval Training: A kind of training programme that involve series of low to high intensity exercise workouts interspaced with rest or relief period. A type of discontinuous physical training where we have exercise workout like; a 100meterjogging, followed by a 100meter striding, then a 100meter high knee raise stretch phase and finally into a 100meter real sprinting.

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LEXICO - SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF VIEWPOINT COLUMN OF PUNCH NEWSPAPER

CHAPTER ONE
GENERAL BACKGROUND
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Change is often a noticeable occurrence in all living languages. Language speakers
exhibit dynamism in various ways. Every language is meant for a particular group of people
however, there are occasions where a language features in a foreign environment making new
words emerge and some lexical items might even be lost overtime in such language.
Obviously, man who makes use of language to communicate and convey meanings has
the nature of change in him. This seems to account for the change experienced in language.
Language is used to enhance effective communication and the effectiveness of its usage
goes a long way to generate the effective meaning of expressions.
Consequently, the context often times is an important factor to consider when one is
expressing himself.
Every country in the world has people who make use of languages which helps to
perform several functions of which Nigeria is not an exception.
Nigeria is a country, which has people with diverse languages and cultures. English
language is one of the language spoken in Nigeria and it serves several functions for instance,
business transaction, education, administration, the language of the press, the language of
entertainment and also the official language etc.

As a matter of fact, English has actually come to stay in Nigeria considering the prestige
being bestowed on it by Nigerians and apparently, a very high percentage of people in Nigeria
will not relent in protecting the interest of English language, simply because it helps to bridge the
gap of socio-cultural differences among the Nigerian people and also promotes interpersonal
relationship.
However, Nigerian columnists use English to convey their messages to their audience.
Some of their expressions are being captured by Nigerian English that is, the variety of English
used in Nigeria. The audience gain adequate information of the messages being highlighted.
The columnists, use to a large extent, employ some features of Nigerian English while
they write and they are always conscious of the fact that there is a Nigerian English.
Talking about lexico-semantic, it means lexis and meaning. It appears to be generally
recognised that frequent changes and modifications occur at the lexico-semantic level in Nigeria.
A large number of lexical items and expressions of British Standard English (BSE) have
undergone semantic change in Nigerian usage. Some lexical items in Nigeria English are
innovated through coining, compounding, blending processes and so many others.
Lexis is stock of words used in a language, it is also known as lexemes. It simply means
words. It is present in the lexicon of a language.
According to Jackson & Amvela (2007) “lexis are stock of words in a given language,
that is its vocabulary or lexicon”. The study of lexis is known as lexicology.

However, lexis is always found in the context it exists. Lexis actually builds up the word
structure of a language.
On the other hand, semantics simply means the study of meaning. The researches that
have been made on semantics by scholars have often bothered on how meaning can be generated
in a particular language. However, though there have been so many theories of meaning which
have been propounded, not one of them can adequately account for how meaning of words can
be inferred in a language this is as a result of the abstract and complex nature of meaning.
Odebunmi (2006) asserts that, “the engine of language is meaning; without meaning,
there is no language in fact the essence of language is to generate or convey meaning”.
From the above assertion, it is quite clear that meaning is vital and an integral part in any
language. It plays an important role in every language.
Pei (1966) propounds that “semantics is the study of meaning in language, including
relations between language, thought and behaviour”. This suggests that meaning and language
have relationship in bringing out the true value of a language.
1.1 THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
This study will attempt to project the extent at which lexis and meaning of Nigeria
English vary from the British Standard English in the viewpoint column of the punch newspapers
of the some selected dailies.

Also, it will identify the various types and causes of lexico-semantic variation in Nigerian
English that can be seen in the viewpoint column of the punch newspapers, to see the extent to
which Nigerians who write the articles seen in the viewpoint columns being examined, use the
lexico-semantic variation in the Nigerian English.
1.2 JUSTIFICATION
This research is studied to portray and clarify the point that Nigerian English is not a
deviation from the British Standard English but rather a variation of it. Therefore, an attempt
with be made to examine the Nigerian English words which are used to express the experiences
and thoughts of the Nigerian people.
Some scholars like Adegbija (1988), Kujore (1990), Bamiro (1991), Odumuh, (1984,
1987, 1998) and many others have carried out extensive studies in the area of lexis semantic
variation of Nigerian English and their contributions have been considered very useful,
especially to the Nigerian people who have little knowledge about Nigerian English.
This study makes an effort to generate relevant use and findings about Nigerian English
which will be of great benefit to English students who want to know about Nigerian English and
also to the Nigerian People generally.
1.3 SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

It is important to emphasize that this study: lexis-semantic analysis of viewpoint
column of punch newspaper will not include every aspect of the Nigerian English concept
because this will be very broad to analyse.
This study shall limit itself to the lexico-semantic variation of the Nigerian English which
are obtainable in the selected dailies in the months April, May, August, November and
December 2010.
1.4 METHODOLOGY
The mode of our study shall be the collection of newspapers published in the months;
April, May, August, November and December 2010. It is important to note that, not all the days
of the weeks in the months aforelisted will be analysed, but some dailies will be selected
randomly for the purpose of the analysis.
Emphasis will be made on the words or phrases and their meanings. The analysis shall be
done through established parameters, that is, the various features of lexico-semantic variation in
Nigerian English in the columns will be classified according to the type of lexico-semantic
variation they belong to. The lexico-semantic variation that will be adopted for our analysis is the
one identified by (Adegbija, 1989) cited in (Babatunde, 2001).
BACKGROUND OF SELECTED NEWSPAPER

THE PUNCH

The punch newspaper was established in 1973 by two friends, James Aboderin, and
accountant and Sam Amuka a columnist and editor at the Daily Times. Its headquarters is in
Lagos. Sam Amuka became the first editor of the Sunday punch. In November 1976, a few years
after the first print of its Sunday edition, the duo started printing its trademark daily newspaper.
Both editions were designed to favour a friendlier apolitical approach to news reporting,
combining footages of social events with everyday political news. It is a paper that is read
throughout the duration. The paper sustains itself by delving into broad issues that interests a
myriad of people.
1.5 CONCLUSION
In this chapter, we have given a general introduction of our research, stating the purpose
and procedures of our study.
We shall proceed to the next chapter which is the review of our literature where we shall
look through what some scholars have said about semantics, lexis, theories and types of meaning
and other terms that are related to this study.
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THE HISTORY OF IDOFIAN FROM THE YEAR 1900 TILL DATE

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

In this work, it is of high importance to shed light on some information which is paramount to the history of Idofian from the year 1900 till 2016. However, accounts vary on the origin of Idofian, a town in present day Ifelodun Local Government area of Kwara State. The chapter will focus on aspects such as the Idofian town, its traditional origin, and land, economic and cultural organization.

A popular historical account of the Idofian town is the one that says the land was founded by an Oyo prince known by the Odofian. He was regarded to be one of the sons of Oloyo (the then sovereign of old Oyo).¹ Another version claims that the town was founded by a man called Ogunrinade Asodebioro Akanmu, who came to the present site of Idofian for hunting purpose. According to this claim, he was a professional hunter from Oyo – Ile. Arriving at the land, Asodebioro built a small hut, known as ‘AGO’  in Yoruba to which he normally rest every evening after hunting expedition.² Another version gave the Idofian town founder’s name to be Ogbangede, who was said to be a hunter from an unidentified place near Oyo – Ile.³

Right from inception, Idofian town and its people have been known with appreciable culture. An important aspect of Idofian is its well established traditional institution with a head known as ‘Baale’.  Also, the economic strength of the town has been in the area of agriculture. The commodities produced include yam, maize, yam flour, cassava and mostly important, okra. The town was exceptionally known for the production of Orunla (sliced okra) usually dried and grinded before it is made into soup. Because of this, the town is often described as “Idofian Ilu Orunla” meaning town of Orunla production. It is even reflected in their eulogy (Oriki) which goes in line with it. ⁴

‘Ti e ba de Idofian ki e ma bere iyawo won,

Ki e bere wipe shey ila won so tabi ko so.

MEANING: When you get to Idofian, do not ask of their wives, ask them whether they had a good harvest of okro or not.

Traders from places as far as Ogbomosho, Oshogbo, Abeokuta, and Ibadan and nearby places like Ilorin, Offa, Ajase – Ipo up till today, come to Idofian town to purchase Orunla (Sliced Okro).⁵

1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

It is very clear that the understanding of the past is indispensible in knowing the present and shaping the future of any community. Therefore, the primary aim of this essay is to show the level of interaction that exists within the socio – political history of Idofian and her neighbors. Also, it is the belief of the writer that history does not deal solely with political matters alone but rather a multi-faceted discipline which deals with human origin, settlement, organization, achievements, problems and experiences and other relative activities in which people were and still engaged and how in this regard, Idofian and its neighbors have responded to various internal and external influence over the years.

The essay attempts to examine the type of relationship that existed between Idofian and her neighbors since the pre-colonial era with specific reference to their political, economic and social relations, and the local government reforms which has not been a vocal point by any historian. Also, this study has tried to find out the fact about the historical development of Idofian in early nineties (1990’s) till date. In order to make a contribution to the history of the town and its people, Reverend Samuel Johnson in his book “History of Yoruba” refers to the entire town in the east of Oyo as fallen into “Ekun Osi”. Thus, Idofian could be said to have been in “Ekun Osi” which was one of the four provinces of Oyo Empire.⁶

Another aim of this research is to show some economic and socio-cultural developments that have been undertaken by Idofian people from time immemorial and on this basis, draw the attention of the government and stakeholders to further help in the development of the town. It is however worthy to note that some of these developments witnessed are being done by the people of the town.  

1.3 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

It is believed that, this research work will in no small measure widen the intellectual horizon of the researcher and others that come across the project work because the study emphasizes the reasons for events, means of resolving and possibly, the ways forward in terms of conflicts resolution and organization, hence, it contributes to the academic knowledge on the field.

This project is considered significant because it helps to reconstruct the history of the area with emphasis on political, economic and social interactions. 

1.4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND LIMITATIONS

The methodology used for this work is inter-disciplinary approach. It is based on variety of sources. The field research took the form of collecting oral information from individuals. Those interviewed include elders, priest, traders, educated men and women. Articles in learned journals with historical themes which are relevant to the present work have been used. Also, of importance is the use of archival materials as well as relevant textbooks, papers from local government office. It must be noted that the texts do not present first hand information but they helped in historical analysis of the facts gotten from other sources.

However, the researcher faced some limitations in the process of gathering information for this research work. One of the major limitations encountered was the non-availability of relevant documents which could have proved very useful in the writing of the essay. In the course of my field work, a lot of problems were faced, most of the informants proved un-cooperative by not giving out relevant information. In actual fact, both oral data and secondary materials formed the most important source used in the essay.    

1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW

While conducting this research, secondary materials have not been extensively used due to the fact that the materials gotten are not much and inadequate; particularly those that deal directly with the topic under study which make me almost to rely majorly on oral source.

Reverend Samuel Johnson’s book “History of the Yoruba” discusses more on how several towns including Idofian were captured by the forces of Afonja.⁷

Also, J.T.  Domingo’s book “Iwe Itan Ilu Idofian” gave insight on the historical development of the people, land and culture including its traditional origin and the socio-economic activities of the town.⁸ “The Oyo Empire  (1600-1836)” written by Robin Law presented me the grace of getting some worthwhile historical facts to garnish and buttress my points on the Idofian community origin.⁹

Furthermore, K.V Elphinstones book “Gazetteer of the Northern provinces of Nigerian” showed the importance of this work and it explains Ilorin under the colonial rule and discusses a town like Idofian as a subject of Ilorin. ¹⁰

There is also a work on the “Local Government Reforms in Kwara State” by an anonymous or unknown publisher. The work is on the impact of the government reforms on the people of Kwara State and the towns within the state. This book highly assisted me on the reforms of local government and the impacts on the people of Kwara State.¹¹

The purpose of the 1976 local government reforms was to ensure prepaid and even development at the local throughout the country and to ensure local government participation at the grassroots level.¹²

Another work on the reforms of local government is “The Local Government reforms” which is written by A.D. Yahaya. The essence military initiative of this work is that it showed how relevant the military’s effort towards reconstructing or restricting the nature of local government administration in Nigeria. Hence, it was used to trace the local government reforms to the development at the grass root level.¹³

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